A Gossip on Natural History*

I was delighted to browse through a copy of the first two volumes of the Irish Naturalist recently in UCC's Boole Library. In particular, I was drawn to the regular notices submitted by the Cork Naturalist's Field Club, which had been founded around the same time as the journal. In the first edition, an important message was given pride of place in the introduction:

"As we go to press, we recieve promise of support from the new Naturalist's Field Club at Cork, a notice of the establishment of which will be found on page 24. We heartily wish the Cork society a prosperous and useful career, and hope that other centres in the south and west of Ireland may soon follow the example of that city."

The Irish Naturalist was established in April 1892 by several Dublin-based naturalists as a medium through which those interested and studying nature in Ireland could publish notes and longer articles about Irish natural history.

'the fact that no journal of the kind exists in the country, is sufficient reason for our undertaking'In the first edition, the publishers noted that "the fact that no journal of the kind exists in the country, is sufficient reason for our undertaking". The journal was established upon a wave of both scientific and amateur interest in botany, zoology and geology around the end of the 19th century and the launch happened as a number of Field Clubs were being established around the country: Belfast (1863), Dublin (1886), Cork (1892) and Limerick (1892).

The Irish Naturalist was published for 33 years and is now an important resource for 'naturalists' who wish to study the history of particular species in Ireland and study the development of science in Ireland.

During the period 1900-1922, interest in natural history began to decline, not least because of prevailing political uncertainties and the journal ceased publication in December 1924 (Wyse Jackson and Wyse Jackson, 1992). Almost immediately afterward, the Irish Naturalists' Journal was launched in Belfast in 1925. This journal continues to publish to this day.

The submitted notice in that first edition informs us that the Cork Field Club was formed on March 18th of that year (1892) and that the President, Vice President and other officers were elected. The President was Prof. Marcus Hartog of Queen's College (now UCC) and one of the Vice Presidents was Mr. Denny Lane.

Marcus Hartog had become Professor of Natural History at Queen's College in 1882 (when he was 31 years old) and he held the post for 39 years. Born in London in 1851, he graduated from Cambridge with a first-class degree in Natural Science. He worked on fungi with the famous botanist Anton de Bary, the "Father of Plant Pathology" and inspired Sir Edwin Butler, who studied under him, to pursue a career in mycology rather than medicine (Cullinane, 1995).

Throughout the editions of the Irish Naturalist for the first year, we read a number of 'proceedings' from the Cork Naturalist's Field Club:

Crawford Municipal Buildings, Cork. Now Crawford Gallery

At a meeting of the club on the 22nd of April 1892, the secretary announced "Mr. J O'Sullivan's munificent gift of his herbarium of the Co. Cork flora, containing 7,000 specimens of plants, to the museum of the society". Such was the  number of specimens collected by the club that, later the same year, the proceedings note that "The secretary gave account of negotiations carried out.... with the object of obtaining for the club, space in the Crawford Municipal Building in which to form a museum".

At the same meeting (November 2nd), Prof. Hartog "gave his Inaugural Address, entitled the "Life of a Cell", dealing with the formation and gradual development of the cell in vegetable and animal tissues, illustrating by numerous diagrams, and by the manipulation of pieces of dough, the various shapes assumed, the manner of absorbing food, and the curious process of cell-division".

By the following meeting (Nov 16th) the secretary was pleased to announce that a "large corridor" was now available in the Crawford for museum purposes.

'the following rambles have been taken by members'An important part of all Field Clubs established around this time were the organisation of regular "rambles" whereby the members would depart for some scenic, part of the city or county and observe and collect specimens for further examination. The Cork field club was no different and many of the locales visited in the first year of the club's activity are still visited by scientists and amateur naturalists to this day.

At their meeting on the 6th of May 1892, the members recorded that, "the following rambles have been taken by members of the club: - April 18th to Blarney, conducted by Mr. J O'Sullivan. April 23rd to Goulding's Glen, conducted by Mr. WJ Knight".

However, as with all field work, things didn't always go to plan, as the proceedings of the Summer meetings record:

"The uncertain weather of the past weeks, combined with the fact of many members being on holidays, has had the effect of making the excursions very small, but several have been taken:
June 29th- the club visited Killeagh, for Glenbower Woods...[which] deserves to be better known.
July 9th- a wet morning deferred many, but a party of twelve visited the beautiful grounds of Fota (A.H. Smith-Barry, Esq.), where there is a splendid collection of pines and firs from all parts of the world, the characteristics of which were pointed out by Mr. Osborne, the Steward.

The Orangery at Fota Arboretum, Cork.

July 13th - to Kinsale and the Old Head, including the unrehearsed item of the wreck of the 'City of Chicago'.
July 23rd- to Mourne Abbey, where a small party, conducted by Mr. Sullivan, of Queens's College, had a most instructive botanical ramble.
August 1st- Bantry Bay was visited by some, and botanical and entomological specimens taken.
August 10th- A very pleasant afternoon was spent by some members at Currabinny Woods, Queenstown [now Cobh] harbour, the 'take' being principally entomological".

As these records show, the history of studying the Natural Sciences in Cork and Ireland generally is rich and varied. The Irish Naturalist  allows us to get some idea of what Cork naturalists (both academic and amateur) were up to during this time, when interest in the natural world had reached a peak.

Many of the locations visited by the club in their first year are still accessible for "rambles" and they are still areas where the natural world can be enjoyed and studied at leisure.

In the second edition of the Irish Naturalist, an author notes, while discussing a newly found plant species, that he was "botanizing along the banks of the river Main, Co. Antrim" when he made the discovery. I don't believe I've ever seen the word botany used as a verb before but it conveys the enthusiasm and joy which the writer clearly derived from the study of plants. I shall be using that word more often as I revive the lost art of the "ramble".

* The title of this piece "A Gossip..." comes from the proceedings outlined above, where it was common to see this phrase used as the title for lectures, e.g. A Gossip on the Ornithology of Co. Cork.
 
Sources:
Cullinane, J.P., (1995) 150 years. A history of the Chair of Botany and Zoology (Queen's College Cork - University College Cork). Unpublished report as typed manuscript.

Wyse Jackson, P., Wyse Jackson, P. (1992). The Irish Naturalist: 33 years of natural history in Ireland 1892-1924. Irish Naturalists' Journal 24(3): 95-101

Europe divided on new GM crop rules

John Dalli: new regulations on GM crops criticised

Plans for new GM regulations in Europe are faltering amidst rejections from a number of large EU countries.


The proposed regulations would have allowed individual member states to decide for themselves whether genetically modified crops were grown in their territories. The regulations were floated in July by Health and Consumer Policy Commissioner, John Dalli who said that member states would be allowed to ban GM crops on grounds other than those based on a scientific assessment of health and risks to the environment .

Having received mixed reviews from both pro- and anti-GM groups, it now seems that some of Europe's major agricultural nations have noted their opposition to the proposals.

On Monday, Marco Contiero, Greenpeace's agriculture policy director in Europe warned EU countries not to be "duped into accepting the proposal as it stands and taking the pressure off the Commission to improve crop safety and prevent GM contamination".

'EU ministers should demand a moratorium' - GreenpeaceContiero called for the EU to totally rethink its strategy on GM crops: "Until Europeans and farmers can be sure that the dangers of GM crops are thoroughly addressed, EU ministers should demand a moratorium on new authorisations".

At a meeting of EU agriculture ministers in Brussels on Monday, there was significant difference of opinions on the matter, with all sides agreeing to delay any decision on how to move forward until after the proposed regulations are reviewed by the EU's legal team and the World Trade Organisation. There are concerns that the regulations could have a significant impact on the internal market which operates within the union.

Apparently, France, Italy, Germany and Spain all came out against the proposals. France and Italy would traditionally have been seen as anti-GM, while Germany and Spain would be considered pro-GM in attitude.

Italian agriculture minister Giancarlo Galan said that Italy does not support the proposal as it stands and that "Each for himself undermines the foundations of the common agricultural policy (CAP)".

His French counterpart Bruno Lemaire was equally dismissive saying that national decision making would “give a wrong signal to European citizens and a wrong signal for the CAP".

'if it's the only way to move forward it may be the least worst option'- James PaiceBritish Minister of State for Agriculture and Food, James Paice also attended the meeting in Brussels and outlined his government's opposition to the fragmented approach, but seemed open to compromise: "The idea of effectively nationalising the policy is pretty counterproductive in terms of the single market, but if it's the only way to move forward it may be the least worst option".

Commissioner Dalli hit back at a press conference after the meeting saying that the proposal "does not undermine the internal market and it is not against WTO rules". Dalli also pointed out that the regulations will be discussed by a council of Environment ministers on the 14th of October and no doubt he will be hoping from a more positive outcome for his proposals.

'GMOs or non-GMOs don't excite me all that much'- John DalliIn a recent interview with Reuters, Dalli warned of rejecting GM out of hand: "GMOs or non-GMOs don't excite me all that much - it's a question of innovation. If Europe is going to say 'no' to anything that is new, then we are condemned to backwaters".

It can be all too rare to find someone involved in the GM debate who doesn’t get “excited” about the positives or negatives of GM crops. Unfortunately, the topic is one which seems to polarise opinion across Europe and this may be the crux of the problem from Dalli’s point of view. However, in trying to introduce an ‘a la carte’ solution which is likely to see the development of blocks of member states in the pro- and anti-GM camps, Dalli risks dividing opinion even further.

What the European Commission needs to do is act on a pan-EU basis and take the decisions which have been long-fingered by successive commissioners. A piecemeal approach will put up barriers to research and innovation which would not be permitted if we were dealing with almost any other scientific topic.

From the response of governments to his most recent attempts to remove the impasse on GM crops, it seems that Europe may be stuck in the backwaters for some time to come.

Wheat and Apple genomes provide hope for food security

The recent sequencing of two major crop genomes is good news for plant protection and for food security.

With the full genetic sequence now available for wheat and apple, scientists will have more information at their fingertips for the improvement of these crops to fight plant diseases and to ensure that growing human populations have adequate food resources in the future.

On the 26th of August last, a team of researchers in the UK released the 'first draft' of the wheat genome. While further work needs to be done to produce a fully annotated genome, the work is a major step forward for plant science.

The team of researchers responsible for the the wheat genome publication were funded by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) and come from the University of Liverpool, the University of Bristol and the John Innes Centre.

The first draft (basically the raw data from the sequencing work) will need to be further annotated and assembled into the individual chromosomes and is based on a reference wheat variety called Chinese Spring. Information on this reference variety will be key to unlocking the genetic information behind other commercial varieties of wheat.

Prof. Mike Bevan from the John Innes Centre says that "The sequence coverage will provide an important foundation for international efforts aimed at generating a complete genome sequence of wheat in the next few years".

The information should lead to improvements in current wheat varieties to ensure that high yields can be maintained in the face of changing environmental conditions and an increased threat from a variety of plant pathogens.

'By understanding the genetic differences between varieties with different traits we can start to develop new types of wheat' - Prof. Anthony HallProf. Anthony Hall of the University of Liverpool hopes that the new information will allow scientists to probe differences between wheat varieties with different characteristics: "By understanding the genetic differences between varieties with different traits we can start to develop new types of wheat better able to cope with drought, salinity or able to deliver higher yields. This will help to protect our food security".

Meanwhile, just this week, an international team of scientists announced that they had published a draft sequence of the domestic apple genome. The genome was published in the current issue of Nature Genetics.

Apple is the main fruit crop of the world's temperate regions and is a member of the plant family Rosaceae which includes many other important species including cherry, pear, peach, apricot, strawberry, and rose.

Much like with the wheat genome, this new information will allow scientists to identify genes which provide desirable characteristics to the crop such as higher yields and disease or drought resistance.

The work by scientists from Italy, France, New Zealand, Belgium and the US was based on the well-known golden delicious apple.

'the scientists were also able to delve into the apples mysterious past'As well as looking to the future of apple production, the scientists were also able to delve into the apples mysterious past. For years they have argued about where the domestic apple came from and now they know. The data published this week shows that the ancestor of the modern apple in Malus sieversii, a plant native to the mountains of southern Kazakhstan.

Prof. Doug Kell, Chief Executive of the BBSRC, who funded the wheat project, points out that "The best way to support our food security is by using modern research strategies to understand how we can deliver sustainable increases in crop yields, especially in the face of climate change. Genome sequencing of this type is an absolutely crucial strategy.

"Knowledge of these genome sequences will now allow plant breeders to identify the best genetic sequences to use as markers in accelerated breeding programmes" said Prof. Kell.

Both the apple and wheat genome work have been made possible by huge advances in sequencing technology. As Prof. Hall of University of Liverpool notes: "Sequencing the human genome took 15 years to complete, but with huge advances in DNA technology, the wheat genome took only a year. The information we have collected will be invaluable in tackling the problem of global food shortage".

'Sudden Oak Death' is here

Sudden Oak Death (Credit: sarcozona)

Department of Agriculture scientists have identified Phytophthora ramorum in Irish trees for the first time.

The organism was isolated from Japanese Larch trees in the Tipperary/Waterford area.

Just this month, the detrimental effects of sudden oak death has already been dealt with on this blog.

A statement from the Dept. of Agriculture said that they were investigating "a small number of cases" found when a special survey of Japanese Larch was ordered after the pathogen was found on the same trees in Britain late last year.

"In addition to the findings in a small number of larch trees, beech trees which were growing in proximity to the infected larch trees were also found to be infected as were two noble fir trees" according to the survey.


The Department of Agriculture say that Japanese larch "represents some 3% of the total forest tree population in Ireland.

"The bulk of the wood from infected trees can be used in the normal way provided the necessary hygiene measures are taken at felling and in sawmills."

The Department went on to say that they were taking "all necessary measures" to find out the extent of the infection and to control its spread.

From Clare to India: EJ Butler "The Father of Indian Plant Pathology"

Born on this day in 1874, Edwin John Butler had a remarkable career which saw the Irishman traveling the globe and becoming a plant pathologist of international renown.

Butler was born in Kilkee, Co. Clare where his father was the local Magistrate. He studied medicine at Queen’s College Cork (now University College Cork) and graduated in 1898.

In Cork, he came under the influence of Prof. Marcus Hartog who was Professor of Natural History and later Professor of Zoology at the college. Hartog was interested in the mechanics of Saprolegnia, a genus of water-moulds which he collected from ponds including that in the lower grounds of the college (where the Glucksman Gallery now stands). Butler began to use similar techniques to study the neighbouring genus Pythium.

Butler went on to study in Paris and London before being appointed as Imperial Mycologist to India in 1906. His work on aquatic Phycomycetes in India as well as his classical studies on the diseases of palms and sugarcane, on wilt of pigeon peas, on wheat rusts, on downy mildews and much more mean that he is regarded as the “Father of Indian Plant Pathology”. He was responsible for categorising nearly 150 species of plant pathogenic fungi.

In 1918, he published ‘Fungi and Disease in Plants’ on Indian plant diseases. He later adapted this book for a European audience and ‘Plant Pathology’ was published a number of years after his death in collaboration with S.G. Jones. It was the classic plant pathology textbook of its time.

Butler left India in 1921 and took up Directorship of the newly established Imperial Bureau of Mycology at Kew, London where he continued his work and became a distinguished figure in the world of plant pathology; travelling widely and founding a number of new journals.

The plaque awaiting installation at Kilkee Library

The Imperial Bureau of Mycology later formed part of the Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau which is now known as CABI and celebrated its centenary in 2010.

Butler was Knighted in 1939. In Butler's obituary, EW Mason notes that

"his most striking characteristic was perhaps his immense interest in fungi both as fungi and as the causal organisms of disease in plants, and coupled with this his power of transferring that interest to botanical and lay minds alike. His lifelong habit of wide and deep reading, linked with his accumulated personal experience, enabled him to present problems in their correct perspective and to recommend the line of attack that should best deserve success." (Mason, 1943)

Sir Edwin John Butler died of influenza on April 4th, 1943 in Surrey. He is commemorated by a plaque at Kilkee Library, Co. Clare (which is awaiting installation) as well as the Butler Medal which is awarded by the Society of Irish Plant Pathologists to individuals who have made a significant contribution to the field. The Butler Building at University College Cork was built in 2000 and is also named in his honour.

The Plant Collectors - A Communicate Science Podcast

Sir Joseph Banks (1743-1820)

On this day in 1768, Sir Joseph Banks left England aboard the Endeavour under the command of Captain Cook. His journey was to be fraught with danger and only a few members of his team would return. But the success of the journey would be measured in the sheer volume of plants and animals described for the first time. Banks' travels aboard the Endeavour would, in turn, inspire and lead to one of the most famous and ill-fated journeys ever made.

Listen to the full story on our first Communicate Science Podcast.

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The Plant Collector

Sir Joseph Banks (1743-1820)

On this day in 1768, Sir Joseph Banks left England aboard the Endeavour under the command of Captain Cook. The Royal Society had suggested that Banks might be brought along:

'Joseph Banks Esq. Fellow of this Society, a gentleman of large fortune, who is well versed in Natural History being desirous of undertaking the same voyage, the Council very earnestly requests their Lordships (of the Admiralty) that in regard to Mr. Banks' great personal merit, and for the advancement of useful knowledge, he also together with his suite be received on board of the ship under the command of Captain Cook.'

Banks' party included Dr. Solander, a Swedish Botanist who he had become friends with in London, Sporing, a naturalist, as well as three artists and four servants. He had been passionate about botany since childhood, when at the age of fourteen he had reportedly decided: "I will make myself acquainted with all these different plants for my own pleasure and gratification."

The voyage lasted three years and Banks collected many plants along the way. The journey was not without its dangers though: the ship and crew faced shipwrecks, disease and attacks by natives. As Banks himself put it: "The almost certainty of being eat as soon as you come ashore adds not a little to the terrors of shipwreck."

James Cook, captain of HMS Endeavour

In the end, just four of the original party of ten survived the journey: Banks, Solander and two of the servants. The remaining two servants died from the cold in Tierra del Fuego; Buchan, one of the artists died after a 'fit' in Tahiti; and the others (Reynolds, Parkinson and Sporing) all died of Batavian fever.

The trip was not without it's rewards though, as Banks records:

'The number of natural productions discovered in this voyage is incredible; about one thousand species of plants that have not been at all described by any botanical author; five hundred of fishes; as many of birds; with insects, sea and land, innumerable.'

When he returned to England in July 1771, he immediately became famous and this led King George III to choose him to direct the future of Kew Gardens. Having seen the benefit of scientific voyages, Banks dispatched a number of naturalists to far-flung places to bring back plants for Kew.

He sent George Vancouver to the Pacific Northwest (the city of Vancouver still bears his name) and William Bligh to the South Pacific (which led to the Mutiny on the Bounty). When David Nelson, Banks' plant collector on the later voyage, was abandoned along with Bligh by the mutineers, he had to watch as they threw a thousand of his plants over the side. The mutineers had apparently resented the fresh water rations being used to keep the plants alive.

Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis)

The Bounty voyage had had one purpose: to attempt to transplant breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) plants from Tahiti to the British West Indies in the hope that they would provide cheap food for slaves.

Nelson died after forty-seven days voyaging (and 4,500 miles) with Bligh in a small open boat and Bligh noted in his log:

'The loss of this honest man I much lamented; he had with great care and diligence attended to the object for which he was sent. I was sorry I could get no tombstone to place over his remains.'

 Despite the obvious dangers, the plant collection trips continued under Banks' guidance and they added greatly to the gardens at Kew and to the library and Herbarium which were finally built after Sir Joseph Banks' death in 1820.

See our Science Gallery: a series of photos from a recent visit to Kew.

Further Reading:
The Making of Kew by Madeleine Bingham (1975).

Sudden Oak Death: An impending threat?

Sudden Oak Death is caused by a fungal-like pathogen called Phytophthora ramorum and has hit the headlines again recently when the disease spread across the Bristol Channel to South Wales.

First found in Britain in 2002 (where it was infecting Viburnum tinus in a garden centre), it has been causing problems in the US since the mid-nineties.

In 2000, researchers at the University of California identified the cause of dying oak trees in many parts of the state to be a previously unknown species of Phytophthora. Another Phytophthora species, P. infestans, causes late blight in potatoes- a topic we have covered previously on this blog.

Alternative hosts for P. ramorum include rhododendron, viburnum, bay laurel, douglas fir, redwoods, yew, horse chestnut, beech.

The conclusive link between the pathogen and sidden oak death was not made until work published in 2002 (Phytophthora ramorum as the cause of extensive mortality of Quercus spp. and Lithocarpus densiflora in California. D.M. Rizzo, M. Garbelotto, J.M. Davidson, G.W. Slaughter, and S.T. Koike.Plant Disease 86: 205-214. 2002).

By 2005, the pathogen had been found in Northern Ireland.

However, despite the problem in Europe and North America arising around the same time, research has shown that the mating-type from the American isolates (called A2 type) are different to those found in Europe (A1 type). This indicates that the pathogen did not come from North America to Europe or vice-versa. It is thought to have originated in an as-yet unidentified third country.

The pathogen can cause cankers of the bark or can cuase damage to the leaves. Depending on the host plant, differing symptoms are visible.

The pathogen may reproduce by sexual or asexual means. To reproduce sexually, both the A1 and A2 mating types (i.e. the European and American types) need to be present together and, apart from a single exception) this has not been the case up until now. Hence, the spread of the pathogen is generally via the production of asexual spores (called zoospores) which are spread by rain and wind.

In order to eradicate the pathogen in California, authorites cut and burn infected trees along with all other host plants within 100 feet. Controlling the spread of infected (or potentially-infected plant material) is crucial.

Control of the disease in Ireland is governed by European phytosanitary legislation and despite it being found on rhododendron and viburnum species in parts of the country, it has yet to be found on trees. With trees now infected Wales, how long until it spreads across the Irish Sea?

Spread of P. ramorum in Europe (2006)

Plant Watch: Common Poppy - a cultural icon

The Common Poppy (Papaver rheoas) can now be found throughout the country on land which has been recently disturbed due to cultivation or building.

This relatively abundant agricultural weed forms seed which can live for a long time in the soil, before germinating when soil disturbance leads to them being exposed to the right light and moisture conditions for them to grow.

A classic example of such seed dormancy was demonstrated on the Somme battlefield when wild flowers recolonised the land disturbed by battle during World War 1. Since then, the poppy has become a cultural icon in the UK and was adopted by the British Legion as a symbol commemorating the dead of that war.

In Flanders Fields by John McCrae, written in 1915, makes prominent use of the poppy.

In Flanders fields the poppies blow
Between the crosses, row on row,
That mark our place; and in the sky
The larks, still bravely singing, fly
Scarce heard amid the guns below.

We are the Dead. Short days ago
We lived, felt dawn, saw sunset glow,
Loved, and were loved, and now we lie
In Flanders Fields.

Take up our quarrel with the foe:
To you from failing hands we throw
The torch; be yours to hold it high.
If ye break faith with us who die
We shall not sleep, though poppies grow
In Flanders Fields.

John McCrae

P. rhoeas (or Corn Poppy as it is commonly known) is the most important broadleaved weed species infesting winter cereals in the south of Europe. Its highly persistant seed make it difficult to control and it can decrease wheat yields by as much as 32%.

Herbicide resistant populations of corn poppy have now been recorded which will make control even more difficult in these regions.

How to create GM crops

Scientists at the Sainsbury Laboratory explain how they have produced blight-resistant potatoes using plant tissue culture. For more on this story, see our earlier post.

Danger in the diet

"This is a sad story. My uncle died. His wife died. Four of their children died. One daughter lived. She left the house. Then she got sick too and died. Also I lost all my friends."
- Pavo Luksic, age 79 from Kaniza in Croatia.

Read the intriguing story of Balkan endemic nephropathy - a mystery kidney disease and how its unlikely cause was finally discovered.

A great piece of science writing from Julia C. Mead of The Scientist. Mead received the 2008 FOLIO gold medal for the best science magazine article for this story which was first published in the scientist in November 2007.

Plant Watch: Goosegrass - the Velcro plant

Over the summer months, we'll take a look at some of the more interesting plants that can be spotted around Irish towns and countryside. The aim is to make it easy to identify at least some of them and have an understanding of their biology. The best thing you can do is to get out there and have a look yourself. We'll start with an easy one to spot and it's highly abundant - so no excuses for not being able to find it!

Goosegrass (Galium aparine) is found throughout the country in both urban and rural habitats. Dog owners will be all too familiar with the seeds of this plant -often adhering in large numbers to dogs which have managed to roll in a clump of these plants. The time taken to remove the seeds from a dogs coat can be considerable!

The plant itself can be found in many different types of habitats. Look for it on scrub or wasteland in urban and semi-urban locations. It may also be found in ditches in agricultural areas; sometimes encroaching on the planted field itself.

The plant can be recognised by touch as much as anything else given its 'velcro-like' stems. These stems are noticeably 4-angled (almost square in shape) with minute, curved prickles all over which give the distinctive velcro feel.

The leaves are arranged in groups (whorls) of between 6 and 9 narrow, pointed leaves. When they eventually flower they'll produce tiny (c. 2 mm) white flowers with four petals.

The fruits, which become evident in late summer are 2-lobed and densely covered with more of these hooked bristles. In terms of seed dispersal, goosegrass is very sucessful. The seeds will stick to animals, clothing, etc. and can be carried a large distance from the parent plant.

Goosegrass is edible*. The fruits can be roasted to make a coffee-like drink and the plant can be made into a tea which has been used by herbalists to treat blood pressure and high temperatures. The plant can be boiled and used as a leaf vegetable before the seeds appear and it makes for "tolerable eating". The tea can also be used to wash your hair and treat dandruff.

The plant can be very troublesome for farmers, reducing yield in winter wheat by 12-57% in a UK study. Because of its straggling, binding nature it can seriously interfere with the process do harvesting.

* Please note, there are inherent dangers in eating wild plants which you may not have identified correctly. If in any doubt, don't eat it and consult an expert. The medicinal claims mentioned are often just that - claims. Don't consider this article a substitute for qualified medical advice.

Science Gallery: London & Kew Picture Special

Charles Darwin overlooked the Central Hall of the Natural History Museum in London between 1885 and 1927, when it was replaced by a statue of Richard Owen (the scientist who coined the term 'Dinosaur'). Owen, while agreeing with Darwin that evolution took place, did not agree with Darwin on the explanation he outlined in 'On the Origin of Species'. Owen was a driving force behind the establishment of the Natural History Museum in London. Darwin's statue was returned to the Central Hall to celebrate Darwin 200.

Thomas Henry Huxley was known as Darwin's Bulldog because of his strong defence of Darwin's ideas. His Great Debate of 1860 with the Bishop of Oxford Samuel Wilberforce was a key turning point in the public acceptance of the theory of evolution.

In an address on the occasion of handing over the Darwin statue to the Museum, Huxley himself said: "we beg you to cherish this Memorial as a symbol by which, as generation after generation of students of Nature enter yonder door, they shall be reminded of the ideal according to which they must shape their lives, if they would turn to the best account the opportunities offered by the great institution under your charge".

 A cherry blossom grows on the banks of the The Pond, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. See our earlier post on cherry blossoms here.

Above, some images of the plant life at Kew, including Pitcher Plants and Orchids. Also, an image taken from the top of the Xstrata Tree-top walk which takes you 18 metres into the air. The walkway is decorated with plaques which explain some astonishing facts about plant life.

A close-up shot of the spectacular bark of Encephalartos altensteinii, the oldest pot plant in the world. See our earlier post on this plant here.

The roof of the Palm House at Kew. Measuring 363 feet long, 100 feet wide and 66 feet high, the Palm House was designed by Decimus Burton and Richard Turner and built between 1844 and 1848. It is the world's most important surviving Victorian glass and iron structure. The structure was repaired in the 1950's and 1980's. During the most recent renovation, the glasshouse was emptied completely for the first time in its history. It was entirely deconstructed and put back together, replacing damaged parts with identical replacements.

The Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, has as its mission statement : To enable better management of the Earth's environment by increasing knowledge and understanding of the plant and fungal kingdoms - the basis of life on earth.

Behind Kew's Mission Statement runs a simple maxim;

"All life depends on plants"

If you liked these photos and have taken some of your own, you might want to enter our Science Photo Competition. Entries close on Saturday 15th May, so get snapping.

Number of the Week: 235 years

The age of "the oldest pot plant in the world" - a cycad of the species Encephalartos altensteinii which can be found at Kew Botanical Garden's in London.
It was collected in South Africa in 1773 and brought to Kew in 1775 where it now grows in the Palm House.
The Eastern Cape giant cycad, as it is known, has been used as a food source in its native range by removing the stem pith, burying it, rotting it, digging it up, kneading and baking it.
Image: The cycad is re-potted in 2009.
There will be lots more photos from Kew in the next post.

Tasty spuds need not be organic

A group of Irish scientists have shown that there is no difference in taste between organically and conventionally grown potatoes.

In a study published in this month's edition of the International Journal of Food Science and Technology, Clare Hilsenan, Roisin Burke and Catherine Barry-Ryan from Dublin Institute of Technology, reported that a panel of consumer tasters could find no significant difference between organic and non-organic potatoes.

Organic potatoes (of the cultivar Orla) were grown near Navan, Co. Meath and were fertilised with composted manure rather than the synthetic fertiliser applied to the conventional potatoes (also grown in Navan). Since potato blight (caused by Phytophthora infestans) is a serious fungal pest of potatoes in Ireland, the conventionally grown spuds were sprayed with a liquid copper fungicide designed to control the fungus. Since such synthetic additives are not permitted in organic agriculture, the organic potatoes were treated with Burgundy (a mixture of copper sulphate and washing soda).

Despite Burgundy currently being permitted in organic agriculture (like the related Bordeaux mixture) there are some doubts about the impact repeated applications of a copper-based treatment has on the local environment to which it is applied. Copper sulphate is toxic to some fish and if it finds its way into water bodies, can cause significant problems. It has also been shown to cause problems for bees, sheep, chickens and especially earthworms who are crucial for proper soil health and therefore the success of an organic agricultural system.

However, the use of Burgundy is a side issue and the study in question deals with the eventual taste of the harvested potatoes.

The potatoes from both sources were taken to the laboratory and baked in the oven.The colour, texture and the dry matter content of the  potatoes were measured as well as the pH and the amount of sugar present in the samples.

"tasters were asked to assess flavour, texture and aroma"Then comes the fun bit. A group of ten tasters (trained to international standards!) were asked to assess the flavour, texture and aroma of the raw and cooked potatoes. This involved them sitting in specially constructed booths were the temperature and light was controlled to insure that they were influenced by outside interference. As well as that, the order in which the samples were tasted were randomised in order to ensure that each had an equal chance of being first or last.

As well as these specially trained tasters, a panel of 80 regular potato eaters was gathered from amongst the staff and students of DIT and asked to assess cooked potatoes under the headings colour, aroma, texture and taste.

"some chefs may not agree with us" - Roisin Burke, DITThe results of the taste-tests were analysed and make for interesting reading. The trained panel of tasters found the organic potatoes to be harder, and drier than the conventionals.In terms of colour, aroma and taste, no significant differences were found between organic and conventionally grown samples.

When the 'untrained' consumer panel reported, they again found no statistical differences in the appearance, aroma, texture and taste.

Since the price difference between organic and conventionally- grown fruit and vegetables is sometimes staggering, these results indicate that taste should not be a factor in our decision if we choose conventional over organic potatoes. An analysis by the Sunday Times showed that 1 kg of organic potatoes cost €2 in Tesco this week compared to €1.06 for 1 kg of conventional spuds.

Speaking to that newspaper, one of the authors Roisin Burke noted that "some chefs may not agree with us" and that "There are other reasons why people eat organic potatoes, such as the lack of pesticides, but we found no difference in taste.”

Number of the Week: 15,000

The number of trees distributed by Coillte to be planted by community groups across the country during National Tree Week, which happens this week. Ireland remains one of the least wooded countries in Europe, with just 10% of our land covered in tress compared to a European average of 40%. Despite this, over 20 million visits are made every year to Irish forests.

Second generation GM can't come soon enough

This week’s decision by the newly-installed European Commission (EC) to allow genetically modified (GM) potato varieties to be grown in some EU countries brings to somewhat of a conclusion, a 13-year campaign by the German chemical company BASF.



An edited version of this article appears on the Guardian.co.uk Science Blog. View it here.

The potato in question, Amflora benefits from the gene for a particularly uneconomic form of starch (amylose) being turned off by genetic modification. This means that the useful starch that is produced (amylopectin) doesn’t need to be separated from the useless form.

The starch is used in the paper, textiles and adhesives industries. BASF say that while the starch will not be used in human food, they may use the product in animal feed.


Amflora also carries an extra gene called neomycin phosphotransferase II (nptII) which makes the potato resistant to the antibiotics neomycin and kanamycin. This ‘antibiotic resistance marker gene’ has provoked much debate and is focused on by opponents of GM technology.


In June 2009, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) concluded that these marker genes, including nptII are unlikely to cause adverse effects on human health and the environment, but due to limitations to sampling and detection they were unable to be conclusive. They did however re-emphasise that they considered Amflora to be safe.



"Insertion can be achieved by using a bacterium to “ferry” the gene into the plant cell or by blasting it in using a gene gun"The antibiotic resistance marker genes are a remnant of the genetic modification process that produced the potatoes in the first place. GM plants are produced by inserting novel genes into individual plant cells and then growing the plant cells into whole plants in the laboratory. Insertion can be achieved by using a bacterium to “ferry” the gene into the plant cell or by blasting it in using a gene gun. Alternatively, the tough plant cell wall can be stripped off and the gene can be inserted into this “naked” cell.



Whatever way it is inserted, not all of the plant cells treated will successfully take up the new gene and incorporate it into its own DNA; perhaps just 5 cells out of every 1000 in particularly susceptible plants. It is necessary therefore to be able to select those cells which have been modified from those which have not.


By not only inserting the novel gene, but also tagging a marker gene onto it, it ensures that cells which have been successfully modified exhibit resistance to a specific range of antibiotics. In the case of Amflora, it means that only those plant cells which will grow in the presence of kanamycin and neomycin have been successfully modified. The successful cells can then be allowed to grow into whole plants. However, these whole plants will contain the antibiotic resistance genes in every one of its cells.


BASF first submitted its Amflora potato for approval in 1996 but an EU-wide moratorium on GM between 1998 and 2004 delayed the process substantially. When the potato was resubmitted for approval after the moratorium ended, progress was so slow that BASF took the EC to court in 2008 to force them to come to a decision.


The chemical company filed an action against the EC in the European Court of First Instance for “failure to act” and decide on the issue despite the EFSA saying in two separate reports that the product had no harmful effects on human health and was as safe as any conventional potato. The company claimed that the previous commissioner, Stavros Dimas, “unjustifiably delayed” the decision on several occasions.


Now, within weeks of stepping into the role, the new European Commissioner for Health and Consumer Policy, John Dalli, has given the green light for planting to begin. BASF say the potatoes will be grown in Germany and the Czech Republic this year as well as Sweden and The Netherlands in 2011.


Opponents of GM technology have been quick to denounce the decision, with Greenpeace saying that Dalli has “steam-rolled” a decision through. Given that the potato variety in question has undergone 13 years of testing since its first submission, this analogy of a steam-roller might be better applied to the lumbering decision making process in Europe rather than this final decisive move by the new Commissioner.


At the crux of this issue is the consumer’s opinion on GM foodstuffs and GM organisms in general. Consumers genuinely do not see the benefit for them of using GM products.


"there is a need to move beyond GM crops that confer benefits to industry and growers alone and towards second generation GM"For this reason, there is a need to move beyond GM crops that confer benefits to industry and growers alone and towards second generation GM which produces added health and nutritional benefits for consumers. The president and CEO of BASF Plant Science Dr. Hans Kast is on record as saying that the Amflora potato represents a potential added value to European farmers of €100 million annually. The company has also pointed out that they are loosing between €20 and 30 million in license income for every lost cultivation season.



Perhaps I’m being presumptuous, but I can’t imagine many Irish or European consumers laying awake at night worrying about lost revenues for BASF. What Irish consumers are concerned about however, are real and tangible benefits from their foods.


In a study carried out in 2005, 42% of Irish consumers surveyed indicated that they would be willing to purchase a hypothetical GM-produced yoghurt if it had anti-cancer properties. In the same study, 44% of consumers said that they would use a GM-produced dairy spread if it had anti-cancer properties.


These second generation GM crops also have a role to play in developing countries, with the development of biofortified foodstuffs to counteract micronutrient malnutrition among the poor.


Undoubtedly, some British and Irish consumers, in common with their European counterparts are reluctant to consume GM crops and see them grown in their countries. The focus of industry on benefits to the grower and seed producer rather than on consumer-centred benefits will prolong this reluctance and hamper the innovation in our food and agriculture industries which is so badly needed at this time.

Not all Banks are Bad Banks

In the last week, the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew in London celebrated collecting and storing its 24,200th plant species. The plant seeds are banked at Kew's Millennium Seed Bank in Sussex. The Sussex site is part of a 180 acre estate centred around a magnificant mansion.

Kew's Millennium Seed Bank was set up in the year 2000 upon the realisation that 60-100,000 of the world's 300,000 plant species are threatened with extinction. The bank aims to conserve seed (and thus the genetic information) of plants around the world - with particular emphasis put on plants either most at risk or those which are potentially most useful to humans.

The bank has international partners and together, they aim to have stored seed from 25% of the world's plants by 2020. Of course there is a conservation reason to protect these plant species from extinction, but Kew are eager to emphasise the current and future uses of plants as a reason for their work.The most obvious use of plants is in food, something that is becoming more and more important in developing countries where food insecurity has led to civil unrest in recent years.

In fact, just last week the UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said that "for the first time in history, more than one billion people are hungry". Speaking at the launch of World Food Day (October 16th) the Secretary-General remarked, "Over the past two years, volatile food prices, the economic crisis, climate change and conflict have led to a dramatic and unacceptable rise in the number of people who cannot rely on getting the food they need to live, work and thrive."

The medicinal uses of plants is also important. For example, the rose periwinkle of Madagascar is a source for not one, but two anti-cancer drugs used to treat leukaemia and Hodgkin's disease. The substances, vinblastine and vincristine were first discovered when the dried plant was crushed to form a tea. Drinking the tea was found to decrease the number of white blood cells in the body.

Plants are also a useful source of fuels (charcoal, biofuels), fibres (cotton), building materials (mahogany) as well as having an intrinsic benefit to the environment and our appreciation of that environment. In short, there is every reason to conserve the plants that we have.

The poet Walt Whitman puts it very well in his poem Song of Myself:

I believe a leaf of grass is no less than the journey work of the stars,

And the pismire is equally perfect, and a grain of sand, and the egg of the wren,

And the tree-toad is a chef-d'oeuvre for the highest,

And the running blackberry would adorn the parlors of heaven..

That plant which brought Kew over that magic 10% level was a species of pink banana which is a particular favourite of the Asian elephant. Musa itinerans, or the yunnan banana as it is known is also an important wild relative of the cultivated banana. This valuable genetic resource will allow breeding of new varieties of banana with disease resistance. This is crucial if we are to continue to eat banana.

In the next 10-20 years the most popular variety 'Cavendish' will almost certainly become unviable due to the pressures of disease. A new variety, which the consumer will accept and have the disease resistant qualities will need to be produced during that time. The genetic information in the yunnan banana may well contribute to the breeding programme.

Professor Stephen Hopper, director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, told BBC News: "the seed bank, as an insurance strategy, is a good sensible way of keeping your options open for the future."